Become a Great Public Speaker

The purpose of this lesson is to help you understand and learn how language style influences speech. Style refers to both the specific words choices and the rhetorical devices (techniques of language) used to express ideas and achieve your speech purpose.




To quote one of my favorite authors Thomas Sowell, he states, “The big divide in this country is not between Democrats and Republicans, or women and men, but between talkers and doers.”


and one more quote by your mother.
"It's not what you say, it's how you say it." 
(Usually said to you after getting in trouble for back-talking or teasing a younger sibling)


Giving a speech is not like reading out of a textbook. 


Effective speeches:

• Use familiar words, easy-to-follow sentences, and straight forward syntax. (Again, know your audience)
• Make much frequent use of repetition and transitions than written text.
• Are more clearly organized and have a specific pattern to help listeners follow along.
• Are much more interactive and can be changed/altered by the feedback (verbals/nonverbals) of the audience.

Keep it Simple Stupid (KISS)


It is of utmost preponderance that the the assemblage apprehends your exposition; do endeavor for elementariness of your elocution. 


In other words,
Make sure your audience understands you. Strive for simplicity of expression in your speeches.


Be Concise

• Use fewer words words to express your thoughts.
• Use contractions
  (I'm instead of I am, he's instead of he is, Dalley's the best instead of Dalley is the best, etc.).
  This creates a speech that is more easily understood and allows for better flow.

A Sentence Fragment (yes that was just a fragment)
It's okay to use sentence fragments and short phrases when giving a speech (but not in written language).




Repetition is the Mother of Skill and Remembering
Good speeches often repeat key words and phrases. 
Repetition adds emphasis to main ideas, helps listeners follow the speaker's logic, creates a style to the speech.


Transitions
Transitional statements help the audience follow along with the flow and intent of the speech. The use of good transitions helps to connect main ideas to supporting details to other main ideas to other supporting details. 
Think of transitions as street signs that are telling you where you are going (or in my case a GPS that talks in a sexy computer voice).


We Like Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns in speech (I, you, me, we, us) are great to use when speaking because it personalizes the speech and can help audience members connect to you as the speaker and to the message.


Use Culturally Sensitive Language you Hippy!
As a public speaker it's critical to be sensitive to cultural variations.
Here are some things to be aware of:
Biased Language. This refers to language that relies on unfounded assumptions, negative descriptions, or stereotypes a given group's age, class, gender, disability, geographic, ethnic, racial, or religious characteristics.
Colloquial Language. Refers to language/sayings that are specific to a certain region or group of people. Use of colloquial language can help you "hit the nail on the head" with your speech, or just might make look "dumb as a load of coal." If you're not getting what I'm saying than there's a good chance you are "as slow as mud" or just "too dumb to pound sand in a rat hole."
Need some enLightenment, Click Here 


Don't be Sexist. Steer clear from referring to everyone as "he" or being generic when referring to stereotypical jobs. All nurses are not females, and not all construction workers are males. No longer is there such thing as "chairmen" it's now "chairperson." If you're struggling with this, then go ahead and struggle, but it's not going to change. 


Sensitive to Disabilities. A disability does not define a person. There are many different types of mental and physical disabilities, so be aware of language that will accord dignity, respect, and fairness.


Choose Concrete over Abstract
Use concrete words that are specific, tangible, and definite. Use a Thesaurus and Dictionary to help you understand and use this.
The opposite of concrete is abstract. Abstract words are general and nonspecific. The problem with using abstract words is these words can be left to the interpretation of individual audience members, which may confuse and frustrate listeners. 
If audience members start of ask questions in their head like, "What did he mean by that?", then they are not listening to what you just said.
Examples of Abstract Words:

• old
• bad
• a lot
• short
• good
• thing
• big
• long
• new
• late

Let me add some clarity by looking at Abstract vs. Concrete phrase.
Abstract: The road was rough.
Concrete: The road was pitted with muddy craters and basketball size boulders.


Paint a Picture with Words
Using vivid images to paint a mental picture for the audience will get their imaginations involved. Key words to help you do this: (taken from Dictionary.com)
Similes: a figure of speech in which two unlike things are explicitly compared, as in “she is like a rose.”
Metaphors: a figure of speech in which a term or phrase is applied to something to which it is not literally applicable in order to suggest a resemblance, as in “A mighty fortress is our God.”
Analogy: a similarity between like features of two things, on which a comparison may be based: the analogy between the heart and a pump.


Here are some other for you to look up:
Personification 
Understatement 
Irony 
Allusion 
Hyperbole 
Onomatopoeia 




Use Appropriate Language
Enough said with this. Don't be using language that offends others.
NO *#$%#! SWEARING!


Ewes Language Correctly
Credibility can be lost when you use words incorrectly. 
A malapropism occurs when one uses a word or phrase in the place of one that sounds similar but has a different meaning. "It's a strange receptacle" is wrong. It should say, "It's a strange spectacle."
Be careful of connotative meaning of words. A connotative word is a word that bear different associations or feelings when used. For example, you may consider yourself big-boned or husky, but not fat.


Be Confident and Convincing


Active Voice
Use and active voice not a passive voice. An active voice is when the subject performs the action. An example would be:
Passive: A test was announced by Professor Dalley for Monday.
Active: Professor Dalley announced a test for Monday.


Use I, Me, My
The "I" language will often create an impression of conviction and ownership. Remember, act credible, and by using "I" in an active voice, it can show confidence. People follow confident people. People believe confident people.


Avoid Wimpy Speech
Avoid phrases that show lack of decision, confidence or understanding, such as:
I'm not sure, but…
I may not be right, but…
I think….
This might….
….or at least I thought.
….wasn't it?
….is that okay?


Leave a Lasting Impression


Repetition, Repetition, Repetition, Repetition, Repetition
As stated earlier, repetition is the mother of skill and remembering. 
A form of repetition called anaphora, you the speaker repeats a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences. An example of this is Dr. Martin Luther King's speech, "I Have a Dream" where he repeats the phrase "I have a dream" numerous times.


Similar to repetition is alliteration.  
Alliteration occurs when a series of words in a row (or close to a row) have the same first consonant sound. For example, “She sells sea-shells down by the sea-short” or “Peter Piper Picked a Peck of Pickled Peppers” are both alliterative phrases.
Word of Caution- when alliteration is poorly crafted, it can distract from from a message.


Use Parallelism


Parallelism is not just a mathematical expression. In language it refers to the arrangement of words, phrases, or sentences in a similar form.


For more information on parallelism Click Here 


In conclusion, a well crafted speech that uses appropriate language style and rhetorical devices will help you to convey a message that will be considered unforgettable. 




Questions

1. Why would it be important to use personal pronouns in your speech? Is there a time that you might not want to use personal pronouns? Why?
2. How is repetition helpful in a speech? How is repetition helpful in a speech? How is repetition helpful in a speech? How is…..okay, you got it, but when or how does repetition become harmful to your speech?

The purpose of this lesson is to help you develop a conclusion that will make you and your speech memorable. There is nothing more disappointing when giving a speech and no one remembers you or the speech, or they do remember it because it was LAME! 




Basic Function of Conclusion

• It's a signal to the audience that the speech is coming to an end.
• It gives you a chance to summarize main points and goals.
• It allows you to reiterate the thesis or central idea of the speech.
• It can allow you to challenge the audience to respond.

An Ending Signal that the END IS NEAR!

• Alert your audience that you are coming up to the end of your speech.
• Use transitional words or phrases to help your audience know that the end is near.

Examples of concluding transitional words or phrases:
Finally…
Looking back…
In summary...
In conclusion...
To wrap it up...
To put this all in perspective…
Let me close by saying…
Once you've given the closing "signal" wrap it up and finish.
DO NOT do a "wait a minute, I forgot to say…"




Doing this does not create closure for the audience. It's like sitting down and having a nice enjoyable dinner and then you have 30 seconds to scarf down your dessert and leave. Just doesn't feel good.


Summarize the Main Points and Reiterate the Topic and Main Points
As stated in earlier lessons (and grade school), you will tell them (audience) what you are going to tell them (the introduction), then tell them what you said you were going to tell them (the body), and finally, tell them what you told them (the conclusion).
By reiterating the main points, you help the audience remember the "good stuff" of your speech.


Challenge the Audience to Respond
What does this mean exactly? It means that whatever your speech is about you can challenge the audience members to put to use what you have taught them. This applies to both persuasive and informative speeches. 


A "Memorable" Checklist

• Use quotations (similar to what you learned in Lesson 14). Quotes can come from poetry, lyrics, and pertinent statements from others.
• Pose rhetorical questions to make your audience think about the speech topic and your speech purpose/intention.
• Tell a story that illustrates or sums up a key speech idea or ideas.
• Use appropriate humor.
• Issue a challenge.
• Make a startling statement. 
• Link back to the introduction to give the audience a sense of having come full circle.

In closing I would like to sum up some areas to remember when preparing for a conclusion (Hey, did you catch that? I just used a transition statement to move into the conclusion of this lesson).
Ask yourself these questions: Does my conclusion...

• alert the audience the the speech is coming to an end?
• actually come to an end when I give the signal? (Remember a conclusion should only take about 6-10% of you speech time).
• reiterate the main points?
• reminds the audience of the speech topic and purpose?
• challenge the audience to respond to your ideas or appeals?
• provide a sense of closure and make a lasting impression?

Questions

1. How can posing a rhetorical question help your speech be memorable?
2. Think of a time that you listened to a speech that ended abruptly or someone that just quickly ended a conversation with you. How did it make you feel? Why is this important to understand?
3. What's more important, a first impression or a last impression? Explain.

Purpose of Introduction


Capture the audiences attention


A good introduction will do the following:

1. It will arouse the audience's attention and make them want to listen to you.
2. It will introduce your topic, purpose and intention.
3. It will preview what you are going to tell them.
4. It will motivate your audience.
5. It will make the topic relevant to the audience.

How to Capture the Audiences Attention


Lead with a quote.
REMEMBER- Inappropriate jokes or quotes will lessen your credibility.


Tell a story.
Noted speech writer and language expert William Safire once remarked that stories are "surefire attention getters."
A good story can personalize and issue and help audience members relate to the topic (plus it humanizes you the speaker).
Something that will help you is understanding what an anecdote is. An anecdote is a brief story of interesting, humorous, or real-life incidents. 
The key to successfully introducing a speech with an anecdote is choosing one that strikes a chord with the audience.


Pose a question.
There are two types of questions you can ask your audience- REAL or RHETORICAL.
A real question invites the audience for a response, whereas a rhetorical does not solicit an actual response but allows the audience to "think" about the answer.
Depending on the rhetorical question, you may need to explain to the audience that the speech will answer the question. 
Other types of rhetorical questions are what I call positive response rhetorical questions. It is an question that you know the audience will answer or agree with. This is a great way to get the audience involved without actually having them respond.
There is also a mixture of REAL and RHETORICAL questions. It's a question that you pose (usually a yes or no question) and the audience will answer through body language (head nod, head shake, smile, or laughter). 


Say something that "startles" the audience.
I'm not talking about making some random goat noise or something. To say something startling is introducing a fact or statement that is not highly known by the audience and (this is important) it is going to relate to your topic.


Example: Let's say I am going to talk about the Rules of Golf. I could start out with this:
"Did you know that you cannot putt with a pool cue? This is true, the USGA forbade the use of pool cues for putting in 1895 after a dispute came up during the U.S. Amateur."
It's startling because it's weird, it's strange, and it's not common knowledge.

Will Ferrell Always Makes Me Laugh

As I have said many a time, there is nothing that will build trust faster than by making someone smile or laugh. Humor is a powerful tool to establish rapport with an audience, but if it is used inappropriately, it will be the death of your speech.




Here's a great checklist to make sure you are using humor appropriately:

• Is your humor appropriate to the occasion?
• Does your humor help you make a point about your speech topic or the speech occasion?
• Have you avoided any potentially offensive targets, such as race, gender, or religion?
• Is your humor likely to insult or demean anyone?
• Will the audience understand your humor?
• Have you given your humor a trial run?
• Is your humor funny?

Refer to the occasion.
Referring to the occasion just means that you give reference to the speech occasion and to any relevant facts about the event. 
An Example of this would be if I were giving a speech at the annual Golf Hackers Executive Club Meeting. It would go something like this:




Establish common ground.
Establishing common ground is done by showing and expressing interest in the audience and most importantly, showing how you and they are similar. This could be a common belief, gender, religion, purpose, etc. 
Remember, establishing common ground should not offend anyone (present or not present) and it must have some emotional connection.
Saying that we are all Homo Sapiens doesn't really work.


Declare Your Purpose and Intentions
This goes back to grade school paper writing. The introductory paragraph must tell the reader what you are going to tell them. The same holds true for the introduction of a great speech; tell them what you are going to tell them. I would enhance that by really getting into the purpose of the speech and what your desired outcomes should be.


Example: "After my speech you will understand the mechanics of a basic golf swing and will be able to implement this new skill in lowering you overall handicap."


Tell the Audience What You are Going to Tell Them
Start by previewing the main points.
To continue with my golf swing introduction, I could go on to tell them that they will be learning the importance of grip and stance and how it affects the swing.


Give the Audience a Reason to Believe
Emphasize the topic's practical implications.
Show what the audience has to GAIN or LOSE by listening or not listening (Pleasure Pain Principle)




Establish Your Credibility
State your qualifications for speaking on the topic.
Briefly emphasize some experience, knowledge, or perspective you have that is different from or more extensive than that of your audience.


Preparing the Introduction

• Prepare the introduction AFTER you have completed the body of the speech.
• Keep the introduction brief and to the point (purpose and intention)
• Review any of your research material that you can use in your introduction.
• Practice and time the length of your introduction.
• Introduction is only 10 to 15 percent of the overall speech.
• Revise until you feel good about it and it has a good "flow" to it.

Questions

1. Why do you want to have a good introduction. What is the downside of having a poor introduction?
2. Can you still have a great speech after a poor introduction? Why or Why not?
3. How could helping the audience see what they have to lose (pain) be a good way to captivate your audience? Do you think it's best to use the "pain" or "pleasure" approach in your introduction? Why or why not?

Two Outlines- One Speech
The Working Outline
A working outline will go through many revisions and changes (thank goodness for word processors).
A working outline is in sentence format.
A working outline will include everything you want to say (again, using full and complete sentences) 





Sentence Format in Working Outline

• Express speech points in full sentences.
• Used to give you the speaker practice before the speech. 
• Used to make sure ALL key points/important events are covered in a specific order. 
• This is a "no-mistake" format.
• Used commonly with a teleprompter.

Working Outline Checklist

1. Write out your topic, general purpose, specific speech purpose, and thesis (this will help you stay focused).
2. Establish your main points (optimally 2 to 5).
3. Add supporting points (minimum of 2 per main point).
4. Label each part of your speech (Introduction, Body, Conclusion).
5. Label and write out transitions.
6. Note sources in parentheses.
7. Prepare a list of sources, and append it t the outline.
8. Title your speech.

Speaking Outline
A speaking outline is in a phrase and/or key-word word format.


Phrase Format in Speaking Outline

• Limited words used.
• Key words to guide you.

Key-Word Format in Speaking Outline

• This is the preferred format for notes (if you have to use notes).
• Use one key word that is associated with the main idea.
• The benefit with this format is it allows you to connect with the audience through eye contact and reading non-verbals. 
• You must be well-rehearsed to give an effective key-word format presentation (use sentence format to practice then move to practicing key-word).

Introduction and conclusions
Remember, a great introduction captures the audience and tells them what you are going to tell them. It is the preface to your speech.
You can break up your introduction into the following:

1. Attention Getter
2. Preview
3. Transition

Conclusion
A great conclusion is your final chance to make you and your speech memorable while telling the audience what you just spoke about. It is the epilogue of your speech.


Make sure you separate your introduction and conclusion from the body of your speech in your notes.


You can break up you conclusion into the following:

1. Transition to
2. Recap
3. Memorable Statement

As you get ready to present, here are some tips on using note cards (or sheets of paper if you have to)

1. Use note cards if you do not have lectern or pulpit from which you are presenting from.
2. Do not use hand gestures that are holding your note cards as this can be a distraction.
3. Leave blank spaces and margins on paper.
4. Use large print or font (bold) so it is easy to see (Use a Sharpie).
5. Glance at your notes- DO NOT READ FROM THEM, unless you have a long quote that must be read correctly and can't be memorized.
6. Number your notes
7. Do not staple papers or note cards together.
8. Slide note cards/paper under each other. DO NOT TURN OR FLIP THEM OVER.

Types of Organizational Patterns




The four basic organization patterns are topical, chronological, spatial, and cause and effect patterns.
There are others, but the main focus will be on these four.

This is a topical solution not a topical pattern

Topical Pattern: used to stress natural divisions or categories in a topic. Don't confuse this with a topical solution like Rogaine that is used for hair regrowth.
This type of speech gives you the greatest freedom to structure.
A speech organized topically has main points organized more randomly by sub-topics. Let's say you are giving a speech about enrolling in Professor Dalley's speech class. The first main point discusses teaching style; the second main point discusses work load; the third main point discusses application of information learned. In this format, you discuss main points in a more random order that labels specific aspects of the topic and addresses them in separate categories. Most speeches that are not organized chronologically, spatially, or causally are organized topically.


Chronological Pattern: used to describe a series of developments in time or a set of actions occurring sequentially.
A speech organized chronologically has main points oriented toward time. For example, say you were giving a speech on dressing for success, you would the have main points organized chronologically. The first main point focuses on selecting the right outfit for the occasion; the second main point focuses how to put on the clothes you picked out; the third point focuses on adding accessories to enhance your attire. In this format, you discuss main points in an order that could be followed on a calendar or a clock.


Spatial Pattern: used to emphasize physical arrangement.
A speech organized spatially has main points oriented toward space or a directional pattern. Let's say you are giving a speech on a large national company called Dizzle Corp. The first main point discusses the New York branch of the organization; the second main point discusses the Midwest branch; the third main point discusses the California branch. In this format, you discuss main points in an order that could be traced on a map.


Cause-Effect Pattern: used to demonstrate a topic in terms of its underlying causes or effects.
An example of a causal speech would look something like this. Let's say you are giving a speech about government welfare. The first main point would inform about the problems of the welfare system and the need for monetary assistance; the second main point discusses additional welfare projects and how they are draining the tax payer. In this format, you discuss main points in an order that alerts the audience to a problem or circumstance and then tells the audience what action resulted from the original circumstance.


Other Organizational Arrangements


Monroe's Motivated Sequence: used to motivate and/or give a call to action.
Comparative Advantage Pattern: used to show the advantage of one viewpoint over another.
Refutation Pattern: used to disprove an opposing claim to your position.
Problem-Solution Pattern: used to demonstrate a problem and then provide justification for a solution.
Narrative Pattern: used to convey speech  ideas through a story.
Circular Pattern: used to demonstrate how each speech idea builds on the previous idea and in turn supports the main thesis.


Whatever format you decide, you want to make sure it flows well and follows the checklists provided in Lesson 11 and uses good transitional statements. 


Above all, you need to make sure that the organization arrangement is a good fit for the audience.

How would you handle this audience?

Question

1. How would you decide what organization arrangement to use for your audience and why is it so important?
2. Have you ever found yourself telling someone a story and forget what you were trying to explain? Why do you think this happens and what can you do to make sure it doesn't happen?
3. Which arrangement pattern do you think would be the easiest to use and why?

Organize Your Thoughts First

Use the Specific Purpose (Lesson 2: Preparing Your First Speech) and your Thesis Statement to guide you.




Body of Speech-Main Points, Supporting Points, & Transitions


Main Points
All your main points will come from your Thesis Statement.
Limit your main points between 2 and 5.
Make sure that each main point focuses on ONE idea.
Write out each main point in a full "purposeful" sentence.
Make sure the main point statements support the Thesis Statement.
State your main points in a logical order.


Supporting Points
Supporting points do what they say, they support the main points.




Use different research/material from different sources for supporting points (This creates credibility and support to your speech).
Use research material as supporting points.
Make sure the supporting points align with the main point.
Make sure you are using well documented supporting points (especially if using facts and statistics).


FYI on Main and Supporting Points
Make sure each point supports the main or thesis. Think of it as a hierarchy (supporting supports main supports thesis).
Keep information in a logical, "free-flowing" order. 
Keep transitions from main point to supporting point to next main point to supporting point, etc., smooth in its transitions.
Dedicate "roughly" the same amount of time on each main point and supporting points.
Good rule of thumb to have the Introduction + Conclusion = the same amount of time as the main body of the speech.


Check List

1. Are the most important ideas in your speech expressed in the main points?
2. Are any key ideas implied by your thesis not addressed by main points?
3. Does each supporting point offer sufficient evidence for the corresponding main point?
4. Do your supporting points reflect a variety of appropriate supporting material, such as examples, narratives, testimony, and facts and statistics?
5. Does each main point refer directly to your specific purpose of thesis statement?
6. Does each point focus on a single idea?
7. Do your main points follow logically form your thesis statement?
8. Do your supporting points follow logically from the main points?
9. Do you spend roughly the same amount of time on each main point?
10. Is each main point substantiated by at least two supporting points?

The Art of the Transition
Use clear transitions to move from one point to another.
Use full-sentence transitions to move from one main point to another.
Prepare the audience for transitions.
Use "mini-summaries" to help audience review what's been said.


Transitional Words and Phrases

FUNCTION	EXAMPLE
To show comparison:	similarly, in the same way, likewise, in comparison, just as
To contrast ideas:	on the other hand, and yet, at the same time, in spite of, however, in contrast
To illustrate cause and effect:	as a result, therefore, hence, because, thus, consequently, so the evidence shows, for this reason
To illustrate sequence of time or events:	first, second, third, following this, before, after, later, earlier, at present, in the past, until now, tomorrow, next week, eventually
To indicate explanation:	to example, to illustrate, in other words, to simplify, to clarify
To indicate additional examples:	not only, in addition to, let's look at To emphasize significance: most importantly, above all, remember, keep in mind
To emphasize significance:	most importantly, above all, remember, keep in mind
To summarize:	as we have seen, altogether, in summary, finally, in conclusion, let me conclude by saying

Here's a basic outline form


Thesis statement
     A. Main Point
          1. Supporting Point
          2. Supporting Point
     B. Main Point
          1. Supporting Point
          2. Supporting Point
     C. Main Point
          1. Supporting Point
          2. Supporting Point
Conclusion


Questions

1. How does having supporting points from different resources give your speech credibility?
2. What is the benefit and drawback of creating two outlines? Have you ever given a speech that you "bombed"? What do you think you would do differently preparing for that speech?

The purpose of this lesson is to help you use the Internet to find supporting material for your speech.


Using a Good Mix of Sources (Print and Internet)


Using a variety of sources will enhance the credibility of your speech. Although the Internet is considered an integral part of our life, it still carries a stigma of not be credible. 


Why? Well there is so much information on the Web and most of it comes from unreliable and/or undocumented claims. It's okay to use the Web for some of your research, but not all of it. 


Now I am going to confuse you. A majority of what we call "printed material" can be accessed online, but is not considered to be the Internet. Printed material can be thought of as material that is found somewhere on a shelf or database. Printed material is often well documented and researched based. A medical journal that is online can be considered printed material, but medical advice on someones blog or website is Internet material. Comprende? Good, let's move on.


Starting at the Library


Physical libraries or a library portal is a great starting point. As stated in Lesson 9, libraries have access to large amounts of printed material and databases.


Here's another great resource- Virtual Libraries
www.vlib.org


Critical Thinking


Critical thinking has been described as "purposeful reflective judgment concerning what to believe or what to do." This will play a role in gathering resources for your speech. 


It's a good habit to ALWAYS question the credibility of a source. Here are some good questions to ask: 

• Is it well documented? 
• How long ago was the research done? (As we all know, research findings change. If you go back far enough in your research you can find where smoking was good for your health. Crazy) 
• How long ago was the site updated? 
• Will my audience accept the source(s) I am using? 
• Is there similar information/data that can also be found relating to this information?

What's the Deal with Search Engines

Larry Page and Sergey Brin (Google Founders)

Let me get a little techy on you with search engines. Currently Google is the God of all searches engines and everyone wants to get ranked high so their site comes up first. Well those geniuses at Google (who I envy very much) have developed a fancy algorithm called PageRank (named after the co-founder Larry Page) to determine who gets listed above somebody else. I will not go into great detail here, but just know it's not always the most credible and relevant information you searched for. 


Now the boys at Google are always working on making searches more relevant, and with the growth of social media there is going to be some more changes of how search results appear. Just know that you must use your critical thinking skills when clicking on any web site.


Here is something that will help you though. Any site ending in .edu or .gov has to go through a special process to get that extension. It's safe to say that a .edu is going to be a educational institution and .gov will be government. 


Anyone can get a .org or any other domain extension.


Search Engine vs. Subject Directory


A search engine can be defined as a program that searches documents for specified keywords and returns a list of the documents where the keywords were found. Although search engine is really a general class of programs, the term is often used to specifically describe systems like Google,  Alta Vista and Excite that enable users to search for documents on the World Wide Web and USENET newsgroups.


Typically, a search engine works by sending out a spider to fetch as many documents as possible. Another program, called an indexer, then reads these documents and creates an index based on the words contained in each document. Each search engine uses a proprietary algorithm to create its indices such that, ideally, only meaningful results are returned for each query.


A subject directory can be defined as a directory that is comprised of links organized into subject categories by human beings. Subject directories are intended primarily for browsing; that is, the searcher may peruse a subject hierarchy in search of information. Many also feature a search program.


Common search directories include:


DMOZ (www.dmoz.org)
Yahoo! Directory (dir.yahoo.com)
Academic Info (www.academicinfo.net)


There are also meta-search engines that scan a variety of individual search engines simultaneously. Meta-search engines run "wide" but not necessarily "deep." Some example of meta-search engines include:


Dogpile (www.dogpile.com)
Metacrawler (www.metacrawler.com)
Ixquick (www.ixquick.com)


FYI: I use Metacrawler quite frequently!!!


"Tainted" Searches


Here's the quick and dirty with what I call "tainted" searches. All search engines make money of advertising. You will find that anytime you do a search there are two to three search results at the top (usually highlighted in a different color) that paid money to get there. Just because someone paid to get to the top, doesn't mean they are the best. 


Advertising is big money and I'm all for it. In fact all the advertisements on my site are paid advertisements. Because I am listing them on my site, I get a portion of the money when someone clicks on an ad. 


Many of these ads are great in what they offer and the information they give. As with all things, you just need to use your critical thinking skills when viewing a site. 


If you are on a site and you see an ad that interests you, go and click on it. There just might be something that interests you and you are helping someone out financially.
Good Search Commands


There are a few tips that will help you find what you are looking for. Sometimes it is good to be very specific in your searches and sometimes it is good to be general.


If you are needing to be specific or need to refine your search because there is a billion returns on your inquiry, you can do the following:

1. Use quotation marks around the complete phrase your are looking for. The search engines will return results that have the complete phrase together. Example- if I type in mad cow in the search box I could get back anything that has the word mad in it and anything with cow in it. If I enclosed the words "mad cow" then the search engine will only return results that have those two words together.
   
2. You can use the Advanced Search tab located on the search engine to narrow down you searches.

Citing Your Sources


I use this site.
http://www.citationmachine.net/


Questions

1. What do you look for when you are searching for credible sources on the Internet? How do you know that the site you are on is a "credible" site?
   
2. Why or why not would you want to click on advertisements on a site you are on? Is there any benefit to you for those advertisements?